Cardiothoracic ratio and the maximum transverse diameter of the heart The WritePass Journal

Cardiothoracic ratio and the maximum transverse diameter of the heart CHAPTER ONE Cardiothoracic ratio and the maximum transverse diameter of the heart CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTIONAnatomy of the HeartGross Anatomy of the heart1.2 THE CHAMBERS OF THE HEART1.2.1 The Right Atrium 1.2.2 THE RIGHT VENTRICLE 1.2.3 THE LEFT ATRIUM 1.2.4 THE LEFT VENTRICLE1.3 EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF THE HEART 1.3.1 ANTERIOR ASPECT1.3.2 LEFT SIDED ASPECT 1.3.3 POSTERIOR ASPECT 1.3.4 Right Side Aspect1.4 THE HEART WALL1.4.2 THE MYOCARDIUM1.4.3 THE ENDOCARDIUM1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDYCHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS3.1 SUBJECTS3.2 SAMPLE SELECTION 3.3 MEASUREMENTCHAPTER FIVE5.0 DISCUSSION5.2 CONCLUSION5.3 RECOMMENDATIONREFERENCESRelated CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Cardiothoracic ratio is the maximum transverse diameter of the heart divided by the greatest internal diameter of the thoracic cage (from inside of rib to inside to rib).   (Herring, 2003). In normal people, the cardiothoracic ratio is usually less than 50% but, in black people up to 55% may still be normal (Sutton 1988). Therefore the cardiothoracic ratio is a handy way of separating most normal heart from most abnormal heart. (Herring, 2003). A heart can be greater than 50% of the cardiothoracic ratio and still be a normal heart (Herring, 2003). This can occur   if there is an ultra cardiac cause of cardiac enlargement which include; 1. Pectus excavatum deformity 2. Straight back syndrome 3. Inability to take deep breath because of obesity, pregnancy etc. (Herring 2003). The ratio may also increase in elderly. This may be to an in folding of ribs, reducing the thoracic component of the ratio (Sutton 1985). The transverse diameter of the heart can be measured directly on a radiograph at 1.83m (6ft) upper limit of 16cm for men and 15cm for women are usual (Sutton 1985). The advantage of a single measurement of that it can be held to be compared in serial films. At difference of 2cm is held to be a significant change. This applies only when the heart is originally normal (Sutton 1985). Normally, the third of the cardiac shadow lies to the left of the midline and one-third to the right (Berry 2003). In normal individual, the transverse diameter of the heart on PA film is usually in the range of 11.5cm to 15.5cm. it lies less than 11.5cm in about 5% of people and only rarely exceeds 15cm (Benny 2003). The maximum transverse diameters of the cardiac shadow at the chest radiograph film consist mainly of the diameters of the left ventricle and right atrium as shown by radiograph (Hada, 1995). The ratio is influenced by many factors, not only left ventricular dilatation or hypertrophy but also dilatation of the other cardiac chambers and aorta, rotation and shift of the heart, respiratory phase, body posture and measurement errors (Hada, 1995). Anatomy of the Heart Development of the Heart The development of the heart begins in the middle of the third week from the cardiac progenitor cells in the epiblast, immediately lateral to the primitive streak. Cells destined to form cranial segment of the heart, the outflow tract migrate first and cells forming more caudal portion, right ventricle, left ventricle and sinus venosus respectively migrate in sequential order. Series of developmental processes later leads to formation of a horse-shoe shaped endothelial lined tube surrounded by myoblasts in the cardiogenic field. In addition to cardiogenic region, other clusters of angiogenic cells appear bilaterally, parallel and close to the midline of the embryonic shield. These  Ã‚   clusters acquire a lumen and form a pair of longitudinal vessel called dorsal aorta. These vessels later gained connections via the aortic arches with the horseshoe shaped region that form the heart tube. As the embryo folds cephalocaudally, it also folds laterally and as a result, the caudal regions of the paired cardiac primordial merge their caudal most ends. Simultaneously, the crescent part of the horse- shoe shaped area expands to form the future outflow tract and ventricular regions. Thus, the heart becomes a continuous expanded tube consisting of an inner endothelial lining an outer myocardial layer. The heart at this stage consist of three layers (a) Endocardium – forming the inner endothelial lining of the heart. (b) Myocardium- forming the muscular wall (c) Epicardium or Visceral pericardium- covering the outside of the tube. Various parts of the heart later develop from the fused heart tube. (Sadler T. W 2000). Gross Anatomy of the heart The normal heart lies within the pericardial sac in the middle of the thorax slightly to the left of the middle (Sokolow 1979). The low pressure right atrium and right ventricle occupy the anterior portion of the heart and the higher pressure left ventricle and atrium his posteriorly (Sokolow 1977). The long axis of the heart from the apex of the left ventricle to the root of the aorta runs upwards and backward at an angle of about 300 from the horizontal plane and 450 from the sagital plane of the body (Sokolow 1977). The resisting and position of the heart vary with the build of the patient and with respiration. It assumes a more vertical position during inspiration in tall thin persons and more horizontal position during respiration in persons with heavier body build. (Sokolow1977). 1.2 THE CHAMBERS OF THE HEART The heart consists of four (4) chambers; that is the right and left atria and the right and left ventricle. 1.2.1 The Right Atrium The right atrium consists of two (2) embryological portions. (Malcolm 1977). The most posterior thin walled portion into which the vena cava and coronary sinus empty in from form the sinus venosus and is compose of similar tissues to that of the great vein. (Malcolm 1977). The more anterior muscular portion includes the right arterial appendage and the tricuspid valve ring (Malcolm 1977) The fossa ovalies lies in the site of the foramen ovale (Malcolm 1977). This inter-atrial communication within which is present during fetal life permits the flow of oxygenated blood from the inferior vena cava into the heart (Malcolm 1977). The patent foramen Ovale remain open or potentially open in about 15% of normal subjects (Malcolm 1977) but since it is a flap value which only allows flow right or left, it is normally functionally closed (Malcolm 1977). 1.2.2 THE RIGHT VENTRICLE The right ventricle is triangular in shape and forms a cresentric, shallow structure wrapped over the ventricular septum (Malcolm 1977), it can divided into a lower inflow portion containing the tricuspid valve   and upper outflow tract from which pulmonary trunk arises. (Malcolm 1977). The line of demarcation between the two portions consists of bands of muscles formed by the cristasupra ventricularis (Malcolm 1977). The outflow tract of the right ventricles is derived from the embryologically distinct bulbus cordis in contrast to the inflow portion which arises from ventricular tissues (Malcolm 1977). 1.2.3 THE LEFT ATRIUM The left atrium like the right is composed of a vein like portion which the pulmonary vein drains and make muscular anterior portion which includes the left atrial appendage (Malcolm 1977). Its wall is slightly thicker than that of the right atrium and the inner area corresponding to the fossa ovale can be seen on its right upper surface (Malcolm 1977). 1.2.4 THE LEFT VENTRICLE The left ventricular cavity is shaped like an egg. The base or the egg is formed by the mitral valve ring. The wall of the left ventricle accounts for about 75% of the mass of the heart. The aorta and mitral ring lies close to one another with the layer anterior mole cusp of mitral valve adjacent to the left and posterior cusp of the aortic valve (Malcolm 1977). The posterior immobile cusp of the mitral valve is shorter and together with the anterior cusp is lethered to the anterior and posterior papillary muscles in a parachute like shared by the two (2) cusps (Malcolm 1977). The interventricular septum which forms the outright anterior aspect of the left ventricle bulges into the right ventricle making the cross section of the mid portion of the left ventricle circular shape (Malcolm 1977). 1.3 EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF THE HEART 1.3.1 ANTERIOR ASPECT As viewing anteriorly, the longest area of the surface of the heart is formed by the triangular shaped right ventricle with the pulmonary trunk arising from the apex of the triangle   above and to the right of the right ventricle, one can see right atrium appendages as an ear shape structure overlying the root of the aorta (Sokolow 1997). The grove between the right atrium and ventricle (Coronary sulcus) is often filled with fat and is occupied by the right coronary artery. Above the right atrium, the superior vena cava is seen entering the right atrium from the back . The anterior aspect of the heart reveals only a small part of the left ventricle lying to the left of the right ventricle and forming the apex of the heart (Sokolow 1977). The anterior interventricular sulcus often contains fat and is occupied by the anterior descending branch of the left coronary artery (Sokolow 1977). The only portion of the left atrium visible from the front is the left atrial appendages, which lies side of the origin of the pulmonary trunk. The lungs normally covers most of the anterior surface of the heart especially during inspiration having only a small area opposed to the back of the sternum and left ribs (Sokolow 1977). 1.3.2 LEFT SIDED ASPECT When viewed from the left side, the ventricle and the left atrium occupy most of the surface of the heart (Sokolow 1977). The posterior interventricular groove separates the left ventricle above from the right ventricle below. The posterior descending branch of the right coronary artery lies in the groove. The anterior ventricular groove runs almost vertically in the view separating the left ventricle from the left atrium (Sokolow 1977). The coronary sinus and circumflex branch of the left coronary artery lies in the groove and complete the ring of blood vessels forming the bases of the corona (crown) after which the blood vessels supplying the heart are named (Sokolow 1977). 1.3.3 POSTERIOR ASPECT The back of the heart mainly on the diaphragm is largely occupied by the left atrium and ventricle plus portions of the right atrium and ventricle (Sokolow 1977). The point at which all four (4) chambers meet posteriorly as called the crux at the heart; because of the cross – shape pattern of the blood vessels lying at the function of the posterior interventricular groove and the anterior ventricular groove (Sokolow 1977). The vessels forming the crux are; the coronary sinus and the posterior descending coronary artery. This latter vessel may be a branch of either the right or the circumflex branch of the left coronary artery depending on whether the right or left coronary artery is largely (dominant) (Sokolow 1977). The pulmonary vein enter the back of the left atrium and the pattern may vary but the two right and the left pulmonary veins are normally present (Sokolow 1977). 1.3.4 Right Side Aspect When viewed from the right side, the right atrium and ventricle occupies most of the surface (Maurice 1977). The posterior and the anterior vena cava enter the atrium at the back and the aorta runs upward from the middle of the heart (Maurice 1977). The outflow tract of the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk form the upper border of the heart in this view (Maurice 1977). 1.4 THE HEART WALL The heart wall is composed of the three layers of tissue, namely the; epicardium, myocardium and endocardium (Stephen 1988). The epicardium and the visceral pericardium are two names for the same structure. The sinus pericardium is called epicardium when considered a part of the heart and the visceral pericardium when considered a part of the pericardium (Stephen 1988). 1.4.2 THE MYOCARDIUM This is the thick middle layer of the heart, which composed of cardiac muscle cells and is responsible for the ability of the heart to contract, (Stephen 1988). 1.4.3 THE ENDOCARDIUM This is the smooth inner surface of the heart chamber, which consist of the simple squamous epithelium over a layer or connective tissue (Stephen 1988). The smooth inner surface allows blood to move easily through the heart. The heart valves are formed by a fold as the endocardium, making a double layer of endocardium with connective tissue in between (Stephen 1988). 1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The objectives of the study are To measure the heart diameter, thoracic diameter and cardiothoracic ratio of normal individual in University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital, Nigeria. To give the comparison between the heart diameter, thoracic diameter and cardiothoracic ratio between males and females. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW In 1919, Danzer undertook one of the earliest studies of the cardiothoracic ratio. After investigation nearly 500 patients without the aid of hemodynamic parameters, He determined that any measurement over 0.5 or 50% was suspicious and over 0.52or 52% was definitely pathological. A latter report by comeau and white in 1942 found that 15 to 25% of normal patient had a cardiothoracic ratio greater than 0.5 or 50% and advised that using CT ratio prediction labels based upon six, image technique and phase of respiration. A significant relationship was found between the radial measurement and age, which differ within ethnic group groups. The median value of cardiothoracic ratio was 43% in Caucasians, 44% in Asian and 46% in Africans. (Ashcroft Maills’ and Mekol). Mekol concluded that a single upper limit (e.g. 50%) for cardiothoracic ratio is unsatisfactory. It all subject with values of cardiothoracic ratio greater than 50% in the present sample had been recalled for more dedicated cardio logical investigation; this would have affected 2.2% of Caucasians, 4.1% of Asians and 9.3% of Africans limit of 5.3% in Caucasians, 52% in Asian and 53% in Africans would include 2.2%, 2.4% and 2.6% of each subject of these racial groups. (Mekol1982). Murphy M.L. in 1985 took routine posterior and lateral chest radiograph in 268 patients and analyzed to determine heart size. The coronary artery of this determination was compared with a specific ventricular mass derived from a postmortem cardiac partition technique. The data indicated that in the majority of cases (greater than 70%) a normal sized heart or cardiomegaly can be correctly determined from the chest x – ray either by subjective arterial or chamber enlargement or management of the transverse diameter (Murphy M.L. 1985). A recent meta-analysis of 29 studies determined that cardiomegaly on the cardiothoracic ratio was the best reason for predicting a reduced ejection fraction, with a sensitivity and specificity of 51% and 79% respectively (Badgett 1996). Comeau in 1942 said that it is important to recognize compounding factors of cardiomegaly such as an epical fat, a transversely positional heart. An expiratory film or decrease in thoracic width. In 1987, Kabala used a computed Tomography model in eight patients to show how the heart diameter and cardiothoracic ratio might change between anterior-posterior chest radiograph taken on 103 patients without cardiac failure and 106 with cardiac failure. An upper limit of cardio thoracic ratio of 55% and of heart chamber or 165mm in males and 150mm in females was shown to practice useful discrimination between normal and abnormal heart size (Kabala 1987). The cardiothoracic ration thoracic ratio increased with age in both sex but females have longer cardiothoracic ratio than men. Portable films taken in the anterior-posterior and supine position enlarge the appearance of cardiac silhouette (Milne 1988). CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 SUBJECTS A retrospective study was carried out in the university of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital, Department of Radiology, and using normal chest radiograph of two hundred and ninety-one (291) patients. 3.2 SAMPLE SELECTION The sample includes the normal chest radiographs taken from 2007-2009. All chest radiographs with abnormal result were excluded from the study. The age, sex from the chest radiographs was obtained. Hypertensive subjects were excluded. 3.3 MEASUREMENT A straight line drawn near the rule meddled of the heart shadow. Another line as in â€Å"a† from the right heart border to order to the first line was drown. A third line was drown from the left heart co-order furthest from the in the middle of the heart shown as the â€Å"b†. The two were then added together, the cardiothoracic rube as the own of the line â€Å"a† and â€Å"b† divided by the largest transverse internal diameter of the thoracic cage as shown on the figure 3.1 below. Figure 3.1 measurement of the cardio thoracic ratio. Cardiac diameter=A=B are the maximum extensions of the heart to the left and right of the midline respectively. CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION The cardiothoracic ratio of males and females in the various age groups will be determined in future study. The ratio increased with age in both sexes but was more marked in females than males. Oberman in 1967 reported that women have higher cardiothoracic ratio than males. Men had larger cardiac diameter than women. The higher cardiothoracic ratio in women was due to their smaller thoracic diameter. This report supports the present study. Edge in 1984 also reported that the increase in cardiothoracic ratio with age found particularly in women was mainly due to contraction of the thoracic diameter rather than an increase in the cardiac diameter. Decrease in the chest diameter with advancing age indicates that cardiothoracic ratio over estimates the heart size in the elderly. Nikol and Wade in 1982 attributed that Africans have larger cardiothoracic ratio because they have smaller thoracic diameter and larger cardiac diameter. It was also noted that environmental factors such as poor nutrition and infection may cause cardiac enlargement with resultant increase in cardiac diameter and cardiothoracic ratio. 5.2 CONCLUSION The higher cardiothoracic ratio in females may suggest the reason of their susceptibility to infections arising from the heart and this could be correlated to clinical data. 5.3 RECOMMENDATION I recommend that any research on cardiothoracic ratio is best with chest radiographs. Females should always keep good hygiene because of their susceptibility to infections because of their large cardiothoracic ratio. REFERENCES Ashcroft MT, Miall WE (1969) cardiothoracic ratio in two Jamaican Communities. AM. J Epidemoil 89: 161-167. Badgett, R.C. Mulrow, P. Otto and G. Ramirez (1996). How well can the chest radiograph diagnose left ventricular dysfunction. Journal of Internal Medicine 11:625-634(medline) Comeau W J, White PD(1942).A critical analysis of standard methods of estimating heart size from Roentgen measurements. A M. J Roentgenol 47:665-667 Covoan N R (1964) The heart lung coefficient and the transverse diameter of the heart. Br Heart Journal 26:116-120 Danzer, C. S (1919) The Cardio thoracic ratio A M. J medical sciences 15:512-513 David   Sutton   (1993) A text of radiography and imaging, normal chest Fifth edition, Great Britain by William Clowes Limited London. P 530 Edge J R, Milliard F C, Reid L, Simon G (1964) The radiographic appearance of the chest in persons of advanced age. Br Heart Journal 26:769-773 Hada Y (1995) Cardio thoracic ratio 26 (1) :51-54 Kabala J T, White P. (1987) The Measurement of the size in the antero-posterior chest radiograph Br journal of Radiology 60 (718) :981-986 Krish namoorthy D M. (2001)100% cardio thoracic ratio Tex heart inst. J.28 (4):334-335 Kono F Suwa M, Hanada H, Hirota Y, Kawanaura K. (1992) Clinical significance of normal cardiac silhouette in dilated cardiomyopathy , Evaluation based upon echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging . Japanese Journal 56:359-365 Manninen H, Reines J, Partenen K, Tynkkyen P, Mykkannen L, Laakso M, Soimakalio S, Pyorata K. (1991) Evaluation of heart size and pulmonary vasculature conventional chest image intensifier photofluorography Manorana Berry, sudha Suri, Veena chowdheny , Sina Mukhopadhyay (2003) normal thoracic anatomy on various imaging modalities, Diagnostic radiology chest and cardiovascular imaging second edition , Jaypee brothers medical publishers (P) Ltd. India P(1) 16 Maurice Sokolow (1997) Physiology of the circulatory system clinical cardiology first edition large medical publication carlifornia PP1-9 Milne E N C, K. Burnett, D. Autrichtig, J. Manillian, and T J Imray (1988) Assessment of cardiac size on portable chest films Journal of Thoracic Imaging 3:64-72 (medline) Murphy M.L, Blue L.R, Thennabadu   P N, Philps JR, Fenis EJ. (1998). The reliability of the routine chest roentgenograph for determination of heart size based specific ventricular chamber evaluation at post mortem investigation radiology 20(1) :21-25 Nikol K, Wade AJ. (1982). Radiiographic heart size and cardio thoracic ratio in three ethnic groups   basis for a simple screening test for cardiac enlargement in men . Br Journal of Radiology 55(654): 399-403 Oberman A, Mayer A.R, Karuna T.M, Epstein FH, 1967. Heart size of adults in a natural population Feamesh-Michigan circulation 34: 724-733 Philip Thorek. (1985). Anatomy in surgery, thorax. Third edition springer Newyork (PP327) Rod R Seetey, Trent D. Stephens, Philip Tate (1998) cardiovascular   system, Anatomy and Physiology, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill Newyork pp602-614 Seninge R.P and Lester R.G.   History of cardiac radiology. Unpublished report 1970. Sadler T. W 2000. Langman’s medical embryology 8th edition.

A world without Law would be a world without Sin Essay Example for Free

A world without Law would be a world without Sin Essay ? According to one of the Holy Books, the Bible, when God created the first man and woman, He knew as the author and finisher of man that he has mind, a conscience which is 2-sided. It could be destructive or constructive, it could embrace good or shun evil, it could love or hate based on the outline that he knows what is wrong and or right. That was the basic reason why God warned them or gave a strict Law against the act that lead to the very first sin, which is the eating of the fruit of knowledge. Hence, if there wasn’t any Law, the first and subsequent sins wouldn’t have existed. A car, an example of mechanical robot, will have no idea why it was created, which is a reason why a manual will be attached to it by the manufacturer for the use of the possible user[s]. We are all created for a purpose but the significant difference between Man and Machine is the choice and will power. These two tools can be shaped with Law[s] to guide man from being a weapon of personal and group calamity. And when there is no Law[s], then man can do whatever and anything he likes to suit his personal desire at the expense of others which would mean â€Å"No-Sin†. †¦At his best, man is the noblest of all animals; separated from law and justice he is the worst. —- Aristotle It can be said man would be reckless, irresponsible, wild, thoughtless, uncontrolled or careless in a world without law. He would be pitiless when the taste for pleasure clouds his sense of reasoning. The mentality that anything he does is not wrong; just-do-it lingers in the mind of man in a world without Laws because there will not be any form of punishment. It would be a world of no hope for the poor. Government which is supposed to organize the society would not be in existence; there would not be anything like the Legislature to make laws, Executive to administer the laws and Judiciary to interpret the laws. Since the germane objective of Law is to maintain order in a society, the government agencies to carry out crime investigations and the professionals called Lawyers would have no space in a world without laws. Therefore, there will be a paradigm shift where jungle justice takes over the expected capacity of law. Discoveries and inventions will set the world in a state of entropy. Classified experiments such as cloning, stem cell growth and Nuclear weapons would know no limit. The world would be overpopulated for their will not be birth control regulations; strange diseases would be epidemic and pandemic. I can conveniently conclude that the world will fall apart without the law [which is tantamount to a world without sin]. A world without Law would be a world without Sin. (2018, Oct 26).

1. Compare two article (see attachment) Coursework

1. Compare two article (see attachment) - Coursework Example This particular study also involves the presence of both qualitative and quantitative approach of research methodology. In terms of qualitative study, article 2 involved in the procedure of data collection through the review of several research articles. However, in this research article, there are no such evidences of application of any sort of theory or model (Black, 2013; MacIntosh & Doherty, 2007). Both the aforesaid articles witnessed the application of quantitative research methodologies. These quantitative research studies in both the articles involved the use of questionnaire for the purpose of gathering primary data from different respondents. In this regard, relating to the research article 1, data has been mainly collected through the framing of a questionnaire, which is specifically designed for two categories including private and public sectors. These involved 547 respondents (Ramachandran & et. al., 2011). On the other hand, in article 2, primary data in the form of questionnaire was mainly collected from the respondents of five different fitness clubs. In this approach, 113 individuals have responded to the questionnaire out of 250 targeted participants (MacIntosh & Doherty, 2007). In this study, questionnaires were sent to 250 clients through mails and out of which 113 of them responded effectively and provided valid responses (MacIntosh & Doherty, 2007). From a contrastive perspective, in article 1, the 547 respondents exclusively involved the faculty members of different higher educational institutes, comprising both public and private. In this study, data was collected by contacting with them through telephones or mail (Ramachandran & et. al., 2011). Furthermore, in article 1, the methodology also involved the presence of a pilot study amid 20 respondents. The reason behind the conduct of pilot study is to determine the

Obesity is a disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Obesity is a disease - Essay Example With increased viewing of TV and computer today, the energy generated by the flight of the imagination keeps the physical responses from getting expressed. This increases aggression and lethargy in children as well as making them obese. This paper aims to accomplish an understanding about what hazards obesity brings with it. The paper argues that obesity is a disease both for children and for adults. Let’s first ponder upon the reasons why adults and children are getting more and more obese these days. The biggest reason is unhealthy food. People have got busier lives in this competitive world, so they have less time to spend in the grocery store buying cheap but healthy food and in the kitchen over lengthy cooking processes. Thus, they prefer looking for a quick and easy, already prepared, meal that they can grab at a nearby fast food corner. Fast food, also known as junk food, is increasingly becoming an all-American choice, both for adult and for children. When we compare expensive fast food with cheap healthy food, all nutritionists agree on the fact that healthy food is not only cheap but also gives the body all essential nutrients that it needs to stay healthy and active; while, junk food is not only expensive but also deprives the body of important nutrients, thus making people frail, fatigued, inactive, and obese because of empty calories. Another problem is the u se of exaggerated statements and images. For example, when an advertisement says: â€Å"XYZ Fried Chicken, the tastiest and healthiest meal you ever ate!†, it means a lot for children as they are going to believe that the junk food is the healthiest food in the world. Hence, they consume unhealthy food and become obese, which leads to many problems in their later lives such as high blood pressure, diabetes, lethargy, increased cholesterol, and heart diseases. Han, Lawlor and Kimm (2010, p. 1737-1748) assert that disastrous impacts of childhood obesity include type 2 diabetes and

Evita :: essays research papers

Evita Stereotyping is a folly that almost everyone indulges in whether they realise it or not. Of course many try to stop this by educating themselves to be knowledgeable about worldly affairs but one can only equip oneself with so much information in ones lifetime. Cofer talks about the stereotype that follow Latino women no matter where they go. On the other hand, Eva Peron (Evita), portrays how Argentinean women can rise up in life and defeat the stereotype they face. Both Cofer and Evita have conflicting views of how one should beat the stereotype that they face. Cofer feels that education is the best way a Latino woman can oust the stereotype of them being lower class citizens or as being easy. She realises that not every Latino woman has the same educational opportunities as she had and because of the majority of Latino women perpetuating the myth, the stereotype will go on. Many Latino women invite this stereotype to themselves as their behaviour and actions are of the result of their upbringing. Latino women think that it is normal to dress flashily or bare their skin. Their culture allows them to do so as they are protected by traditions and laws of a Spanish/Catholic system of morality. The main rule in their culture is that "You may look at my sister, but if you touch her I will kill you." This system has made Latino women more open and daring. Once they go out of their cultural system, they practice the same actions which often tends to be misinterpreted as being easy. Some Latino women have used this as a way to advance themselves onto higher positions in the world just like what Evita did. These women are not of the majority but almost all Latino women fall into the stereotype of being easy just because of what a few women has done. Evita is a typical example of how a woman can use her physical assets to gain higher positions in the world. Even though she is treated like a saint today, there is still a question of morality on how she has advanced herself. True she gave hope to the lower class but how she went about it is morally wrong. By treating her like a saint, it is almost saying that it is all right to use your body to advance yourself. This is what Cofer is against. She feels that women should prove themselves and get out of the stereotype by using education to advance themselves. Many Latino women fall into the term "sexual firebrand" (348)

Being Admired or Being Liked

Adolescence is a crucial stage in the development of an individual. It is at this period that psychological and emotional issues arise even at times to the point of creating depressive and disruptive behavior problems in adolescents. One of the many factors that affect the development of an adolescent is the social status he or she possesses. In the case of adolescents, this social status is determined primarily in the school environment.A recent study by Oldehinkel and associates, examines the relationships of the different variables of social status of adolescents with that of depressive problems. The study concluded that depressive problems are primarily affected by two domains of social status which are achievement-related and affection-related social status. With the results of the studies, it is further recommended that what information that has been obtained be used for future studies that will endeavor to solve the dilemma of social status on adolescents.In praise of the stud y, the researchers have made a novel contribution to psychology through the use of a wide scope and delimitation of the subject matter. Article Review: Being Admired or Being Liked Adolescence has been widely known as one of the most complicated as well the most interesting stage in the development of an individual. It is at this stage that one’s unique identity is discovered and developed. Thus, adolescents experience a variety of challenges usually related to their psychological and emotional health.In the research study made by Oldehinkel and associates entitled â€Å"Being Admired or Being Liked: Classroom Social Status and Depressive Problems in Early Adolescent Girls and Boys†, the relationships and connections of different aspects of social status of adolescents with that of depressive problems in the classroom environment were analyzed and discussed. Hypothesis and Purpose of the Study Oldehinkel and comrades cited many studies not only on animals but on humans as well concerning the long-known association of low social status with depressive problems (2007).Social status has been defined in two ways, that is, through achievements and affections. In terms of achievements, the element of competition is present whereas in terms of affection, acceptance into a social group is crucial (Oldehinkel, 2007). Although both are considered measurements of social status, they are completely different from each other. In the study by Oldehinkel, the importance of these two definitions of social status was studied in line with depressive problems of adolescent boys and girls (2007).The study primarily focused on the adolescence stage since this period is interestingly considered as a crucial point where depressive problems are frequently encountered. Achievement-related and affection-related social statuses were primarily analyzed in the study. These two views of social status are usually factors that affect the arousal of depressive problems in indivi duals. In previous studies, the relationships of gender difference to the two definitions of social status have been greatly examined.Such studies show that males tend to be affected more by achievement-related social status while females tend to be affected more of affection-related status (Oldehinkel, 2007). In connection to recent and previous studies, the study constructed by Oldehinkel and associates was a concoction of all the studies. Its very purpose is to examine the relationship between early adolescent’s depressive problems and social status in the classroom environment (Oldehinkel, 2007).The major hypothesis tested by the researchers is that low peer status in the achievement-related domain is most significant for depressive problems in boys, while in girls, depressive problems are more strongly associated with low peer status in the affection-related domain (Oldehinkel, 2007). A secondary hypothesis is also formulated where researchers infer that high social stat us in a particular area will compensate for the individual’s depression problems and low status in another particular area (Oldehinkel, 2007).Methodology of the Study Sample Participants Participants were recruited initially by employing the Tracking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey or TRAILS, which is a study on preadolescents whose aim is to track and explain the development of the participants (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 419). The participants were selected in two stages. A request to give names and addresses of all inhabitants born in a particular year range is made to five municipalities, urban and rural alike, in the North of the Netherlands (Oldehinkel, 2007).In this step, 3483 names were listed (Oldehinkel, 2007). In addition, the researchers also approached primary schools of the same municipalities this time, to request participation in TRAILS. In order for children to be eligible, their schools should approve participation requests. A second wave of the TRAILS became the sample population of the study. All in all, the total number of the participants who were eligible and accepted to be part of the study, excluding the parents and the schools, is 1046 (Oldehinkel, 2007).In addition to these participants, schools having the TRAILS participants were requested to partake in peer information and nominations to determine the social status of the participating adolescents. Furthermore, the parents of the participating adolescents also became part of the information gathering. Measure Employed for Data Collection For the affection-related and achievement-related status, the information was obtained from the peer nominations from the participating schools. Questionnaires were formulated; six of which are affection-related such as â€Å"Which classmates do you like?†, whereas, achievement-related questions such as â€Å"Who are good at sports? † numbered three (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 420). Proportion of nominations was used to determi ne the degree of peer status. Information for the participants’ depressive problems was obtained through the help of the adolescents’ parents. Questionnaires were again employed for this type of data gathering. The particular questionnaire used is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) which is a commonly utilized questionnaire for child and adolescent psychiatric research (Oldehinkel, 2007, p.420). In addition to the data collected from the parents, self-reports from participating adolescents were also gathered through the use of the questionnaire Youth Self-Report, the counterpart of CBCL (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 420). Statistical Analysis Statistical methods to test the hypothesis and the relationships between the different groups of information were employed. These include means of and correlations of the different variables, means of t-tests and z-tests (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 421). Furthermore, linear regression analyses were also done.To better compare the different var iables to social status, the researchers constructed a system of four combined status groups. In this system, low and high (1) refers to adolescents with a low status in an area and a high status on another area, only low (2) refers to adolescents having a low status in one area and no high status, only high (3) refers to adolescents having only high status and no low status and lastly, intermediate (4) refers to adolescents who are neither low nor high in status in all areas (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 421). Results and DiscussionResults show that females have more nominations of being good learners as well as good-looking, whereas boys were nominated predominantly as good in sports. No significant gender differences were observed for affection-related status although results point out that girls are more veered to depressive problems while boys to disruptive behavior problems (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 422). In girls, depressive problems were usually due to association to being disliked whil e boys’ depressive problems are correlated with being good at sports (Oldehinkel, 2007, p.422). An interesting result obtained is that much like girls, boys’ depressive problems are highly related to the affection-related social status (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 422). This is contrary to the previous studies that have shown that boys tend to have depressive problems caused primarily by achievement-related low social status. Interestingly, the results of the study also show that through the distribution of the participants into the four status groups systems, males and females are actually equally distributed (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 423).This is significant since it exhibits that there are no substantial gender differences when it comes to social or peer status. Going back to the hypotheses formulated by Oldehinkel and associates, both hypotheses are supported by the results in the general scope although in the individual status groups, some trends vary. Nevertheless, the resu lts show that girls’ depressive problems tend to be affected by affection-related low social status while boys’ depressive problems are more likely to be caused by achievement-related low social status.Furthermore, data shows that the adolescents’ high social status in one domain tends to counteract the effect of a low social status in another domain, thus, lessening the instances of depressive problems. Generally, there is gender difference between achievement and affection-related social status. However, no significant gender difference is evident on the sports-related domain. This illustrates that girls are also excelling in sports which is contrary to traditional belief that sports is particularly related to males (Oldehinkel, 2007, p. 425).This may be explained by the growing trend in society regarding gender equality. Comments and Recommendations What the researchers have discovered is novel. Although there have been many previous studies that tackle the t opic of their study, the scope and delimitation of the research study conducted by Oldehinkel and associates has a far wider domain. With its multiple variables and various measures of data analysis, the researchers obtained a great deal of information. Thus, such study is a great contribution to adolescent psychology. The sample size and the duration of the study are also remarkable.Its relatively large sample size is a guarantee that the sample population is appropriately represented. The three years duration of the study also adds to the assurance that the data obtained from the study is reliable. The data collection was also appropriate. However, it is recommended that researchers should have cited the participating municipalities along with other communal information of the respondents. Furthermore, the methodology and statistical analysis of the study is commendable. Although some of the described procedures are complicated, the results have been presented clearly.Lastly, and the most interesting of the research study is its open-ended conclusion wherein the researchers themselves urge the creation of future studies to further make use of the results and conclusions obtained in the study. It is quite proper that further studies be done to obtain solutions to the social status problems and depressive as well as disruptive behavior problems of adolescents. Reference Oldehinkel, J. A. , Rosmalen, J. G. M. , Veenstra, R. , Dijkstra, J. K. & Ormel, J. (2007). Being Admired or Being Liked: Classroom Social Status and Depressive Problems in Early Adolescent Girls an

Essay Windshield Survey - 3429 Words

Windshield Survey Data Collection Grid and Paper Carletta Pope and Terra Wheeler HCS/457 July 25, 2010 Dr. Jamal, MD, MPH CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY: I certify that the attached paper is my original work and has not previously been submitted by me or anyone else for any class. I further declare I have cited all sources from which I used language, ideas, and information, whether quoted verbatim or paraphrased, and that any assistance of any kind, which I received while producing this paper, has been acknowledged in the References section. I have obtained written permission from the copyright holder for any trademarked material, logos, or images from the Internet or other sources. I further agree that my name typed on the line†¦show more content†¦Some were dressed for work whereas others were dressed casually. There are two main newspapers that are delivered to the 28216 area, the Charlotte Observer and the Mountain Island Weekly. 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